The Grand Tour and the Capture of Westmorland - By Etruscan Corner

The Grand Tour was a long journey through continental Europe undertaken by wealthy aristocrats beginning in the 18th century. The journey, which was indefinite in duration, primarily visited Italy's major art cities. During the Grand Tour, young men learned about politics, culture, art, and antiquities while spending time visiting archaeological sites, studying, and shopping.

Italy was one of the most popular places to visit: the works of Palladio in Venice, Neoclassicism in Naples, the Norman castles in Sicily, the ruins of Rome and those of Pompeii and Herculaneum, and the Phlegraean Fields with their interesting volcanic activity.

The historiography of the Grand Tour is broad and varied, spanning art history, literary themes, and tourist interests, attempting to understand the precise meaning and nature of the Grand Tour and its cultural significance.

For many travelers, their first experience of Italy was arriving at the port of Leghorn (Livorno), as the English called it, where many of them disembarked on their way to Florence.

Most travelers then headed to Rome, and during their stay they often traveled east through the countryside to Tivoli. Here stood the remains of the immense complex of Hadrian's Villa, the subject of extensive excavations starting in 1724, and of the Temple of the Sibyl, which so fascinated architects.

Thomas Jones, who visited the area in November 1777, described Tivoli as having "the foaming torrents that descend from the precipices into the deep abyss with a terrific noise and hideous grandeur."

To the west of the city, the unparalleled gardens of the Renaissance Villa d'Este, with a spectacular series of terraces lined with oak and cypress trees carved into the hillside, offered inimitable views from the terrace and belvedere, which were painted by British artists such as John Robert Cozens and John “Warwick” Smith.

A highlight of the trip was the commissioning of a portrait by a renowned painter of the moment, often during an extended stay in Rome, or the purchase of views of Italian landscapes. Among the painters best known to the grand tourists were Pompeo Batoni, Canaletto, and Piranesi. Numerous foreign painters, engravers, and sculptors lived in Rome and benefited financially from this practice, both by selling their works and offering their services as guides.

Later, this trip also became fashionable for young women. A trip to Italy with one's maiden aunt as chaperone was part of the education of a young lady of the upper class. Recall, for example, Mary Shelley, who arrived on Lake Como in the summer of 1840 and stayed in Italy for eight weeks: this trip resulted in the travel book A Zonzo per la Germania e per l'Italia (1844).

“Over the course of a century, the Grand Tour changed, the routes expanded, and the women's accounts documented a different approach to travel, more open to unusual destinations.”  Lady Knight, who lived in Italy for over twenty years, wrote in 1793 that the Italians were “a very sensible and pleasant people.”

The Irish priest Martin Sherlock, arriving in Rome on October 1, 1778, seemed surprised to discover that in Italy everything “is made up of extremes,” protected by “excessive luxury for some and the most abject poverty for others.” He also emphasized that “the Italian, in general, is either extremely good, or extremely bad.”

During the voyage, the young tourists acquired, according to their means, numerous works of art and memorabilia. Often, the quantity meant they couldn't carry trunks full of objects and works of art. Then, there was the option of shipping the items home, although, as in the case of the Westmorland, that route was not without its dangers.

The Story of the Westmorland

At noon on January 7, 1779, the British merchant ship Westmorland, en route from Livorno to England, was captured by two French warships off the coast of Spain. Since France had joined the War of Independence on the side of the Americans, the Westmorland's captain was prepared for trouble. He had a crew of sixty men and 22 cannons, but was outgunned. The ship was towed to Malaga and legally declared a spoil of war, "The English Prize."

The French then began selling the cargo, while the crew and passengers were taken prisoner and taken to Cadiz, where, in due course, they were exchanged for other prisoners and sent home. Subsequently, the Westmorland was renamed and recommissioned in the Spanish fleet, but was eventually recaptured by the English in the Caribbean.

For the most part, it was a civilian affair, no more than a footnote in the narrative of history. For the polite Georgian culture, however, the capture of the Westmorland became an event of extraordinary importance.

The Westmorland was a British armed privateer frigate that operated in the Mediterranean. The private ship, equipped with a captain and crew, operated under the authorization of a letter of marque (made out to the owner). Hence the term "privateer ship."

We have no visual record of the Westmorland's appearance, but we know that it was launched in London in 1776 and was capable of carrying a cargo of approximately 300 tons, making it large enough to make an annual trading voyage to Italy financially viable.

"Laden with works of art acquired by young British travellers on the Grand Tour of Italy, the British merchant ship Westmorland set sail from the Italian port of Livorno."

When the Westmorland left Livorno, it carried a cargo that included 57 crates of objects collected by English baronets on the Grand Tour. Among them were Francis Bassett, Prince William Henry, and Charles Howard. The requisitioned art treasures were passed on by the French government to two trading companies with ties to Ireland, despite Captain Wallace's protests that the ship was filled with "extremely valuable goods."

The Spanish King Carlos III was informed of the artworks' arrival by his prime minister, the Count of Floridablanca. The king purchased the works for 360,000 silver reales (a discount on the original asking price of 600,000 gold doubloons, but still a considerable sum). The works were transferred to the Royal Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando, confirming Spain's growing interest in Italian art and culture.

There is a letter from Thomas Jenkins, a key agent in Rome, writing to William Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth, informing him of the acquisition of objects owned by his son, Lord Lewisham. Although the British consul in Cadiz initially informed the British Admiralty that the Westmorland and its cargo had been legitimately seized, requests followed from the British ambassador for the repatriation of the Westmorland's artwork and crew. The captain, crew, and few passengers were soon released, but the art treasures remained the property of the Prado Museum, the Royal Academy, and other Spanish national collections.

With a few exceptions: the portraits of Basset and Lord Lewisham were purchased by the Spanish Prime Minister; a package of Catholic relics intended for the Duke of Norfolk (which the Spanish returned to their rightful owners); and a Perseus and Andromeda by Mengs by Sir Watkin Williams Wynn, which ended up in Catherine the Great's collection at the Hermitage Museum. In 1784, the £100,000 for which the cargo had been insured in Livorno was paid in London.

These objects remained scattered among various Spanish museums, their origins forgotten.

It was only in the late 1990s that Spanish archaeologist José Maria Lúzon Nogué questioned the dating of a group of funerary urns classified as ancient. His search for information on their provenance led him to the archives of the Royal Academy and the story of a mysterious captured ship. This led to the discovery of documents providing details about the Westmorland and its precious cargo.

After extensive research in France, Spain, and Italy, Professor Lúzon Nogué was able to reconstruct the ship's cargo and the names of the owners of the urns on board. Among them were high-ranking aristocrats such as the Duke of Gloucester, brother of George III, and the Duke of Norfolk; artists and merchants from Rome such as the Scottish painter Allan Ramsay; and longtime residents such as the banker and agent Thomas Jenkins; the diplomat and merchant John Udny; and a Scottish landowner and lawyer, Sir John Henderson of Fordell.

The most exciting moment, however, was the deciphering of the mysterious initials "P.Y." engraved on the books and prints owned by the library of the Royal Academy of Madrid, which stood for "Presa Ynglesa," the English Prize: therefore, those objects were part of the Westmorland's cargo!

The Rich Cargo of the Westmorland

“The young travelers who acquired the treasure of books and works of art and shipped on the Westmorland never got to enjoy their acquisitions.”

Captain Michael Wallace was carrying a large sum of money from the sale of a shipment of cod loaded in Newfoundland. The ship was also carrying 32 wheels of Parmesan cheese, barrels of olive oil, 4,000 barrels of salted anchovies, medicines, 84 rolls of luxurious white Genoa paper, 129 pounds of the famous black silk of Bologna, 150 chests of manna, 34 bales of hemp, 22 barrels of Tartar salt and medicines, 5 crates of artificial flowers, a crate of flowering onion bulbs and seeds; boxes of ointments, sweets, and citrus blossom water, four barrels of Madeira, and a double-barreled shotgun.

But most importantly, the Westmorland carried 57 crates of art purchased in Italy by the Grand Tourists.

Dr. Catherine Whistler, Senior Curator of European Art at the Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology in Oxford, said: "British tourists in Italy in the 1770s were time travelers, imagining themselves in the classical past amid the landscapes and ruins they encountered on their travels. The maps, books, and antiquities they purchased, and the artworks they commissioned, were imbued with meaning and memories."

A vast legacy, consisting of entire libraries, crates full of musical scores and manuscripts by Christian Joseph Lidarti and Franz Joseph Haydn.
Among the works, in addition to Perseus and Andromeda by Raphael Mengs, were portraits of Frances Bassett and Lord Lewisham by Pompeo Batoni; watercolors by John Robert Cozens depicting the volcanic lakes of the Roman Campagna, views of Vesuvius and the Phlegraean Fields; sculptures by Albacini and Christopher Hewetson; and a series of watercolors by William Hamilton; carved marble fireplaces, including one intended for the Duke of Gloucester; violins, violin strings, hats, ornamental fans, and precious books; sketches by Piranesi; samples of lava from Vesuvius sent by William Hamilton; relics; paintings by Carlo Maratta, Guido Reni, and Guercino; modern copies of Raphael's paintings; drawings by artists working in Rome; 23 cases of ancient Roman statues and marble fragments, as well as modern plaster casts; and colored marble slabs for tabletops, vases, and candelabra by Piranesi.

Inventories revealed that, in addition to paintings, there were philosophical treatises, ancient marbles, maps, travel guides, and foreign phrasebooks. But also traveler's diaries that document the movements of tourists of the past.

A Thorny Matter

The matter of the capture of the Westmorland was a thorny one, given the relations between France and England, so much so that diplomat Sir William Hamilton, who had the opportunity to host some young travelers at his headquarters in Naples, also took an interest in it.

In November 1764, Sir William Hamilton arrived in Naples as English envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to the Neapolitan Bourbon court.

Sir Hamilton, during his long stay in the Neapolitan capital, studied volcanic activity and earthquakes, but was particularly interested in the new archaeological discoveries at Herculaneum and Pompeii. He became an avid collector of ancient vases, some of which were transferred to the British Museum in 1772. His salon hosted illustrious figures visiting Naples, the destination of the Grand Tour, such as Goethe and Casanova.

Many of the travelers whose purchases were aboard the Westmorland were young baonetti whose interests were not limited to cultural pursuits. Too often, they sought licentious adventures, which their accompanying tutors had been entrusted, somewhat optimistically, to control.

Their behavior in Italy often astonished older, more composed people, such as Sir William Hamilton, who in 1775 wrote of travelers in Naples: "They were interested in art, gambling, prostitutes, or drinking." Last year, the arts and gambling were the predominant passions... this year, drinking and gambling.

Treasure Maps

The reconstructed inventories of the Westmorland have revealed that the hold contained a series of travel guides and diaries, which, according to María Dolores Sánchez-Jáuregui, represent a sort of "time capsule of 1779, a window into the art and collecting culture of the Grand Tour at a very specific moment."

The diaries outline exactly what the Grand Tour was, with practical advice on traveling in Italy in the late 18th century. The cargo contained copies of the first two volumes of Voyage d’un François en Italie, a popular French guidebook written in 1769 by Joseph Jérôme Lefrançois de Lalande; and a copy of Itinéraire Instructif De Rome En Fête Des Étranger by Giuseppe Vasi, a guidebook describing the attractions of Rome to be visited on foot in eight days, averaging nearly fifty sites per day!

Another book in the Westmorland inventories was Pietro Rossini's Il Mercurio errante sulle grandizze di Roma, sia antichi e moderna (1776). First published in 1693, Rossini's guidebook ran through twelve editions until 1789. With each edition, further information on Rome's palaces, churches, and antiquities was added to the text, and the buildings were updated as they were built or restored.

Rossini was a respected antiquarian and, in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, served as a guide for foreign visitors to Rome. Rossini provided tourists with an intellectually stimulating offering: hiring an experienced and knowledgeable guide was recommended for young tourists from the beginning of their trip, especially those visiting Rome, where there was so much to see.

Thomas Nugent wrote The Grand Tour; Or a Journey through the Netherlands, Germany, Italy, and France in four volumes, the third of which is dedicated to Italy. Nugent advises: "It is necessary to have in Rome a skilled antiquarian who will save the visitor a great deal of trouble by directing him to the various remains of antiquity particularly worthy of a discerning traveler. These antiquarians are ridiculously distinguished by the name of Ciceroni, and can be hired for a fee, booking them for a month or a day."

James Boswell, who remained in Rome between March and April 1765, enrolled in a six-day course in Art and Antiquities with the Scottish antiquarian Colin Morison. Boswell wrote, "Impressed by these famous places, I was seized with enthusiasm. I began to speak Latin," a practice the two Scots maintained throughout the course. Boswell wrote in his diary that maps should be incorporated into the teaching and understanding of the Grand Tour: "Then we went to the Capitol. We ascended the roof of the modern Senate, from which Mr. Morison described ancient Rome and its seven hills. He showed me a small map, and reading it, gave me a clear summary of the growth of this famous city to its present extent."

Arriving in Calais in July 1775, the grand tourist George Legge, Viscount Lewisham, then 3rd Earl of Dartmouth, spent three years on the continent with his tutor David Stevenson. According to Westmorland's reconstructed inventories, Legge purchased a wide variety of items in Italy: books on Italian art, theater, and history, as well as a popular guidebook; copies of Raphael and Domenichino; and lava samples from Vesuvius. The inventories also recorded some of Stevenson's last pieces of Italian cartography, and, most sumptuously of all, a portrait by Pompeo Batoni. In the portrait, Legge is seen holding a map of Italy.

Taking home a Batoni portrait as a memento of a Grand Tour was the height of refinement for British travelers.

Artists for Tourists

From the late 1740s, Pompeo Batoni developed the iconic Grand Tour style, so popular among the English that it allowed him to produce high-quality portraits in rapid succession. Batoni could complete the portraits in two or three short sittings; he then completed the composition without the subject, drawing on previously developed typologies and models. His style became so popular that at least 193 portraits are known, 154 of which were of English travelers.

In addition to the maps and globes that appear in his portraits, art historians have emphasized the recurrence of Roman ruins or iconic views such as the Colosseum or the bust of Minerva Giustiniani, which would characterize the style of Batoni and the Grand Tourist. But Batoni was unique in including maps in his portraits of tourists.

Batoni painted Francis Basset, 1st Baron de Dunstanville, in an idealized portrait of the Grand Tour. Fashionable, imperious and cultured, Basset seems at ease in unfamiliar surroundings and confident in the presence of Roman antiquities and the map indicates the learned pretensions cultivated and the grand tourists.

In the imagined scenario, the map served to orient the user—Basset—to guide him through the sites of Rome. Basset leans against a column depicting a bas-relief of Orestes and Electra, derived from the Roman sculptural group preserved in the Palazzo Altemps in Rome, unique in Batoni's oeuvre. In the background, one can see the dome and façade of St. Peter's and Castel Sant'Angelo—"Modern Rome"—aligned so that the view faces southwest, as from the Pincio or the Porta del Popolo, the traditional entry point to Rome. Armed with his "Plan de Rome," likely taken from de Lalande's guidebook, Basset seems ready to explore the city's sites, just as James Boswell did with his guide Colin Morison.

There are the young men, Francis Basset and George Legge, Viscount Lewisham, sitting in scarlet coats before Pompeo Batoni, whose portraits by this time were so stereotyped that "their subjects might as well have stuck their heads through a hole in a pre-painted background," as John Brewer put it.

The Irish sculptor living in Rome, Christopher Hewetson (1737–1798), a still underappreciated figure and until relatively recently almost forgotten, spent thirty-seven years in Rome and was much sought after in the city's most prominent circles. Only the arrival of Antonio Canova in Rome in 1779 would shake his confidence, but Hewetson was kind enough to recognize his rival's quality.

Several busts by Hewetson were aboard the Westmorland when she was captured, including one recently identified as Francis Basset.

For English sculptors seeking to earn a living from commissions from travelers in Rome, competition with local sculptors was considerable. Thomas Banks (1735–1805) wrote to his father that when it came to carving marble, "the Italians completely surpass us."

Space for Souvenirs

Travelers always reserved space in their trunks for printed matter purchased abroad. In Britain, private libraries were expanded to accommodate the influx of new books and papers.

The unfortunate tourist John Soane, on his way back to England, discovered that one of his trunks had come loose as his carriage traveled along the poor road. The contents of that trunk, including the Royal Academy's gold and silver medals, had spilled,
and despite his desperate petitions to the authorities, Soane was unable to recover the items. The contents also included many of his mementos of Italy, which, according to Gillian Darley, explains why that period of his Grand Tour is less well documented.

Francis Basset traveled to Italy in 1777 under the tutelage of the Reverend William Sandys. When Basset left Rome, he shipped two portraits of himself painted by Batoni on the Westmorland, along with other goods acquired during his trip, such as a map of the Gulf of Naples by Filippo Morghen, six watercolors of the Alban Hills by John Robert Cozens, and a 1619 edition of La Sicilia Antiqua by Philip Clüver.

The Hidden Relics

Only one item from the Westmorland made its way to Britain: a secret shipment of relics given by Pope Clement XIV to the Catholic recusants, the Arundells of Wardour Castle in Wiltshire, who were building a sumptuous chapel. In 1770, Catholic worship was still illegal in England, and to elude curious Protestant inspectors, the relics were hidden in a block of marble.

One of the documents discovered by José Maria Lúzon Nogué is a memo written by a Jesuit, Father John Thorpe, to the Spanish ambassador to the Vatican, following news of the capture of the Westmorland. Thorpe was concerned for the safety of these sacred relics, which had been hidden in the marble plinth and delivered for shipment without Captain Michael Wallace's knowledge.
In Catholic Spain, relics could not be spoils of war and could not be sold, so they were shipped to England.

"English Prize"

The "English Prize" offers a rare window into the past, bringing us closer to the minds and imaginations of individual travelers and artists through their possessions: they chose sculptures and prints, scribbled notes in their books, collected lava samples after visiting Vesuvius, and, judging by the many musical scores found on the ship, enjoyed playing music in an evening with friends.

Those who entrusted their valuables to the Livorno agents and sent them to England aboard the Westmorland never saw them again, but at least they managed to retain indelible memories of the monuments and landscapes of the extraordinary country they had left behind.